Abstract: Irritability is a common symptom associated with several pediatric mental health disorders including depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder. Recommended treatments may be significantly different based on the target symptoms. Diagnostic clarification is achieved over time using screening tools, individual and family history, coordination with schools, and targeted observation.

Irritability is a general symptom associated with several DSM-IV-TR diagnoses. This article will focus on irritability as a common denominator shared by four disorders commonly diagnosed and treated in primary care: depression, anxiety, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Irritability is also associated with bipolar disorder, autism spectrum disorders, and many medical conditions; however, these will not be discussed. These conditions should be assumed to have been ruled out when reviewing symptomatology and treatment plans in this article.

It is not uncommon to hear parents say they are confused, especially when parenting an adolescent. Their adolescent is irritable and often unapproachable, yet the parents have been led to believe that this is developmentally normal. While many teens display mild irritability as part of their developmentally expected quest for independence, a departure from baseline mood and/or disruption in the ability to function is abnormal and may require intervention.

In general, there are a few FDA-approved medications for use in pediatric patients. In regards to major depressive disorder, there are two selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) approved for use: fluoxetine for ages 8 years and older and escitalopram for ages 12 years and older. When prescribing antidepressants to children and adolescents, the prescriber must inform patients and parents about the FDA black box warning regarding the increased risk of suicidal thoughts. Prescribers should also discuss a safety plan including determining an adult who the patient will alert if suicidal ideation occurs and that this adult will maintain close supervision and take the patient to the closest emergency department if safety remains a concern.

A 9-year-old White male, DS, presented with his parents to a metropolitan pediatric ED after threatening to hurt himself with a knife and becoming aggressive with his family at an outpatient psychotherapy appointment. At the psychotherapy appointment, DS became enraged with minimal provocation, yelled obscenities, and attempted to strangle and scratch his 6-year-old adopted brother. He was physically restrained by his mother in the waiting area, and once released, kicked over chairs, cursed, bit, and kicked his mother. The outpatient therapist called emergency services, and they transported the patient to the pediatric hospital ED. He was then admitted to an inpatient pediatric psychiatric unit for acute stabilization, safety, and assessment.

Prior to this incident and admission, DS had been in outpatient psychotherapy for 5 months. Review of psychiatric symptoms was positive for frequent sadness, suicidal ideation, hopelessness, irritability, poor self-care, rigidity in choosing clothes or toys, impulsivity, aggressiveness, argumentativeness, oppositional/defiant behaviors, and hyperactivity. He reported having no friends; however, his teachers told his parents that he got along well with his peers and appeared to have friends at school. He often made statements such as "my life stinks." DS had an insignificant birth and developmental history other than slight delays in reading. His symptom review was negative for auditory or visual hallucinations, delusions, mania, hypomania, and any history of physical, sexual, or emotional abuse.

DS's family history included diagnosed obsessive-compulsive disorder in his mother, and his father said he had been "an angry child" growing up. Recent significant psychosocial stressors include parental separation with a divorce planned within 1 month of this inpatient admission. He had voiced concerns to his mother that he caused the divorce and had refused to discuss his concerns with his father. DS had an Individualized Education Program for difficulties with reading. He had also experienced verbal bullying at school. Two years ago, his parents received custody of DS's younger paternal half-brothers. Prior to this, he had lived in the home as an only child. DS's father was diagnosed and successfully treated for leukemia 4 years ago, and, for much of DS's life, his mother had undergone extensive treatment for multiple sclerosis.

DS had previously been diagnosed with ADHD and prescribed long-acting methylphenidate. This medication was discontinued within 1 week of initiation, as DS experienced significant insomnia, anorexia, and aggression. His mother reported never agreeing with the ADHD diagnosis and did not recall completing any screening tools at home or sending any screening tools to school for teacher completion. Most recently, he was prescribed bupropion (the drug safety and effectiveness has not been established in pediatric patients) as an oral daily dose to target symptoms of depression and possible ADHD. His mother reported that while taking bupropion, DS demonstrated a decrease in aggression and irritability. Two weeks prior to admission, he consistently refused to take the medication for no apparent reason. He had not tried other psychotropic medications and had no significant medical or surgical history. Upon admission to the inpatient psychiatric unit, a complete blood count, comprehensive metabolic panel, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and lipid panel were all essentially within normal limits.

Discussion

DS's situation exemplifies the significant symptom overlap often present in pediatric mental health. His review of symptoms related to depression included frequent sadness, suicidal ideation, hopelessness, irritability, and poor self-care. Worthy of note, DS did have some symptom improvement on the antidepressant bupropion, although he did not experience complete symptom remission. He also expressed symptoms of anxiety including irritability, feeling on edge, separation anxiety related to leaving his mother, and frequent worries about the health of his parents (See Mnemonics). He reported symptoms of ADHD including hyperactivity, difficulty concentrating, impulsivity, and associated irritability. Lastly, he acknowledged ODD-type symptoms of oppositional, defiant, and argumentative behaviors, typically concentrated at home and focused toward his mother.

His family history was positive for obsessive-compulsive disorder with his mother and nonspecific anger with his father. He had a long history of significant environmental stressors including parental separation and looming divorce, legitimate fears of each parent's death, the addition of two half-brothers into his home and family, and school stress related to a learning delay in reading.

The priority symptoms included his suicidal ideation, aggression, and irritability. During his 7-day admission, his consistent presentation during group, individual, and family therapy was that of a healthy, well-nourished, and somewhat cooperative boy. His eye contact remained fair with normal psychomotor activity level, no concerns with speech or language usage, and an anxious/depressed mood and affect. He expressed passive wishes for death during his first 2 days. He consistently denied auditory/visual hallucinations and delusions. His sleep, appetite, and energy levels remained within normal limits with his insight, and judgment ranged between poor to fair. His attention span and concentration were fair. He became tearful and anxious when separating from his parents after visiting hours.

Table Mnemonics

Positive outlook

On the 7th day of admission, he transitioned to the psychiatric partial hospitalization program. The sertraline dose was increased to 50 mg by mouth 5 days after initiation, and it remained at that level for the duration of the partial hospitalization. At discharge, it was arranged for DS to return to his established outpatient individual therapist, engage in once-a-week family therapy, and outpatient medication management through a psychiatric prescriber. He was planning on returning to school and had consistently demonstrated increased frustration tolerance with his half-siblings and a mastery of positive coping skills to manage his emotions. He denied and demonstrated a lack of suicidal ideation, there was a significant decrease in irritability and oppositional behaviors with his mother, and many positive interactions with peers and adults were had.

Major depressive disorder

Five or more of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week period and represent a change from the previous functioning. One is either depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure.

1. Depressed mood (may be irritable mood in children and adolescents)

2. Loss of interest or pleasure in all or almost all activities

3. Weight loss or weight gain (change of more than 5% in a month)

4. Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day (often early morning awakening 2-4 a.m.)

5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation

6. Fatigue

7. Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt

8. Diminished concentration or indecisiveness

9. Suicidal ideation or recurrent thoughts of death

Excessive anxiety and worry that is difficult to control occurring more days than not (for at least 6 months).

Three or more of the following symptoms with some present for more days than not (for the past 6 months). For children, only one symptom is required.

1. Restlessness or feeling on edge

2. Being easily fatigued

3. Difficulty concentrating or mild going blank

4. Irritability

5. Muscle tension

6. Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, restless, or unsatisfying sleep)

A pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behavior lasting at least 6 months during which four or more of the following symptoms are present with symptoms presenting by early adolescence:

1. often loses temper

2. often argues with adults

3. often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults' requests or rules

4. often deliberately annoys people

5. often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior

6. is often touchy or easily annoyed by others

7. is often angry and resentful

8. is often spiteful or vindictive

(6 or more of the following symptoms persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive)

1. often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes

2. often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities

3. often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly

4. often does not follow through on instructions or fails to finish schoolwork or chores

5. often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities

6. often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort

7. often loses necessary things

8. is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli

9. is often forgetful in daily activities

(6 or more of the following symptoms persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive)

Hyperactivity:

1. often fidgets (with hands or feet) or squirms in seat

2. often leaves seat in classroom

3. often runs about or climbs excessively when it is inappropriate

4. often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly

5. is often "on the go" or acts as if "driven by a motor"

6. often talks excessivelyImpulsivity:

7. often blurts out answers before questions have been completed

8. often has difficulty awaiting turn

9. often interrupts or intrudes on others

Reprinted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision, (Copyright (C)2000). American Psychiatric Association.

Common screening tools

Depression: Child Depression Inventory (CDI), derived from the Beck Depression Inventory, can be used with children and adolescents ages 7 to 17. Parent and teacher versions are available. In the self-report version, the child/adolescent reports on a variety of symptoms including negative mood, interpersonal problems, ineffectiveness, and negative self-esteem. Available for purchase.