Acute Kidney Injury Formerly known as acute renal failure, acute kidney injury (AKI) is a reversible rapid reduction in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) or kidney function, resulting in an increase in serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, and metabolic waste...

Affirming Care for LGBTQ+ Patients Affirming care recognizes the significant impact of sexual and gender minority (SGM) status on a person’s health and is critical to ensuring SGM patients receive culturally competent and clinically appropriate care (McElwain & Carr, 2021...

Amenorrhea The menstrual cycle is an important indicator of a female’s health. Disruptions of this cycle are a common complaint seen by both women’s health and primary care providers. Amenorrhea is the absence of menses and can occur for a...

Breast Assessment Breast examination is an important aspect of the diagnosis and surveillance of breast diseases. Current guidelines for frequency of female clinical breast examination are outlined below. Patient reports of breast pain, lumps, nipple discharge, or...

Cardiovascular Assessment Focused cardiovascular assessment begins with taking a health history. While doing so, observe carefully for signs of inadequate perfusion or circulation, such as cyanosis or skin changes. Order of examination is performed as inspection...

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is caused by compression of the median nerve along the carpal tunnel with symptoms such as numbness, tingling, hand and arm pain, and muscle dysfunction (Kothari, 2022a). CTS is a common disorder affecting...

Chronic Kidney Disease Previously known as chronic renal failure, chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a progressive, irreversible loss of kidney function resulting in reduced filtration, build-up of toxins, and fluid and electrolyte imbalance. Continued decline in kidney...

Cranial Nerves There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, which are assigned Roman numerals I through XII. Most of the cranial nerves are named for their function, such as the optic nerve, which is responsible for transmitting visual information. The cranial nerves...

Digital Rectal Exam Digital rectal examination begins with taking a health history, while ensuring privacy. While doing so, observe carefully for nonverbal cues of pain or discomfort. Obtain consent for the examination and secure a chaperone. Order of examination is...

Fundoscopic Exam A fundoscopic exam, also known as ophthalmoscopic or retinal examination, is a test used to screen for eye disorders, injuries, and diseases. It can be one of the more challenging procedures performed during both routine physical examinations and...

Gastrointestinal Assessment The focused gastrointestinal system assessment begins with taking a health history. While doing so, observe carefully for signs of pain or discomfort. The order of examination is performed as inspection, auscultation, percussion, and light and...

General Assessment Focused general assessment begins with taking a health history regarding constitutional symptoms. This examination involves a general survey of the patient, measurement of vital signs, and pain assessment.Optimal Patient PositioningExamine the...